Biodegradable Adhesive Interfaces for Bioelectronic and Biomedical Applications

1. INTRODUCTION

With the recent rapid development of wearable biosensors and diagnostic devices, the demand for adhesive interfaces that can reliably attach these devices to biosurfaces has increased significantly [1-6]. During indirect contact with biological tissues, it is essential to maintain stable and long-term adhesion without causing irritation or damage. Although current adhesive interfaces have shown excellent performance in various fields [7-10], further studies on biodegradable adhesives that can be safely degraded and absorbed by the body are required to develop bioelectronics. These biodegradable materials are key components of next-generation biomedical platforms that enable targeted drug delivery, persistent tissue integration, and reliable in vivo data acquisition [11,12].

Traditionally, wound closure and device attachment have relied on staples, sutures, or clips. However, such invasive approaches can inflict physical damage on the adhesion interface, thereby increasing the risk of secondary injury, infection, or discomfort [13]. Although traditional methods have shown excellent adhesive performance, they have limitations when applied to sensitive areas, such as nerves, blood vessels, or eyes [14,15]. To overcome these limitations, less invasive and safer alternatives utilizing synthetic polymers and biomimetic adhesives have recently been proposed [16-20].

Nonbiodegradable adhesives offer functional benefits, but they can cause chronic inflammation if left in the body for long periods and can cause significant physical and psychological burdens on patients when the device is removed [21,22]. Accordingly, there is increasing interest in biodegradable materials that are inherently nontoxic and biocompatible, and degrade in the body in a controlled manner while effectively performing their intended function. When used as an interface, these materials can act as biodegradable adhesives that stably fix devices after attachment or implantation and then gradually and safely degrade [23-25]. As such, biodegradable adhesives are particularly suitable for skin-attached sensors and implantable diagnostic devices, where long-term biocompatibility and eventual bio-absorption are essential.

This review highlights the latest progress in the development of biodegradable adhesive systems for prolonged and robust attachment to biological tissues. Their importance lies not only in enhancing patient outcomes but also in bridging the gap between bioelectronic devices and physiological environments. We begin with an overview of how biodegradable materials break down and then classify these adhesives into two main approaches: (1) hydrogel-based adhesives that degrade primarily from the surface inward and (2) bioinspired three-dimensional (3D) structured polymers that mimic natural adhesion mechanisms. Finally, we discuss the emerging directions for integrating biodegradable adhesive interfaces into diverse medical bioelectronic applications (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Schematic of a biodegradable adhesive patch interface designed for robust and long-term adhesion to biological organ surfaces for bioelectronics applications. (a) Biodegradable polymer. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (b) Bioinspired 3D structure and biodegradable bioadhesive. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [17]. Copyright 2009, Elsevier. (c) Biodegradable interface for bioelectronics. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [1]. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH.

2. BIODEGRADATION MECHANISMS

Biodegradable polymers have gained considerable attention in the field of adhesive applications, particularly in biomedical and transdermal delivery systems, because of their ability to safely degrade and be removed from the body. These polymers can be broadly categorized into two major classes based on their structural form and degradation behavior: hydrogel- and bulk-type biodegradable polymers. Each type exhibits distinct degradation mechanisms that are closely related to its molecular architecture and interactions with water.

Hydrogel-type biodegradable polymers, which possess a high water content and hydrophilicity, are typically characterized by 3D crosslinked network structures. These polymers degrade primarily through a breakdown of their crosslinking points (as illustrated in Fig. 2 (a)). When exposed to aqueous environments, such as bodily fluids, these materials readily absorb water and undergo significant swelling. The absorbed water facilitates the hydrolytic cleavage or weakening of physical or chemical crosslinks within the network. This results in the disintegration of the polymer matrix through a surface erosion mechanism, where the structural integrity progressively diminishes inward from the outer layers. As degradation proceeds, the material gradually loses cohesion and dissolves, ultimately allowing its components to be removed from the body. This type of degradation is generally mild and surface-limited, making hydrogel-type polymers particularly attractive for applications requiring soft, skin-like adhesion or minimal tissue irritation [26-28].

Fig. 2.

Degradation pathways of biodegradable polymers. Biodegradable materials that degrade via (a) backbone cleavage and (b) bulk-type biodegradable materials that degrade via the cleavage of crosslinking points. In the schematic, dark blue lines represent polymer backbones, orange lines indicate crosslinking points, light blue lines correspond to polymer side chains or branches, and red star symbols denote the degradation sites where bond cleavage occurs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [24], licensed under CC BY 4.0.

In contrast, bulk-type biodegradable polymers consist of dense, nonswollen structures in which water penetration occurs throughout the bulk of the material. Representative examples include poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolic acid), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), polycaprolactone, and polyglycerol sebacate (PGS). These polymers predominantly undergo degradation via bulk erosion, wherein the polymer backbone is cleaved via chemical hydrolysis (Fig. 2 (b)). During this process, water molecules diffuse into the interior of the polymer and react with the labile ester bonds present within the polymer chains. This reaction leads to the gradual breakdown of long-chain macromolecules into smaller oligomers and eventually into monomers. These degradation products can then be metabolized or safely excreted by the body. Unlike surface erosion, bulk degradation tends to occur uniformly throughout the material and can lead to the rapid loss of mechanical properties before visible mass loss occurs [29-31].

Importantly, the distinct degradation behaviors of hydrogel-and bulk-type biodegradable polymers directly affect the functionality and long-term durability of bioelectronic devices. For hydrogel-type biodegradable adhesives, the surface-limited erosion mechanism helps maintain the functionality of the device by preserving the bulk mechanical integrity and electrical properties for a long time. However, gradual swelling and surface degradation can weaken the interfacial adhesion and change the device–skin compatibility, which can affect the consistency of biosignal acquisition or drug delivery rates over time [32,33]. Therefore, the precise control of the degradation rate and swelling behavior by optimizing the crosslinking density and polymer composition is crucial for maintaining a stable performance over the lifetime of the device.

In contrast, bulk-type biodegradable polymers undergo uniform degradation throughout the matrix, which can lead to the rapid degradation of their mechanical properties even before significant mass loss is observed. This uniform degradation can significantly affect the structural stability, adhesion, and electrical continuity of the bioelectronic devices, leading to premature failure and decreased therapeutic performance. For example, rapid bulk degradation can induce internal defects, which can lead to abrupt electrical failure or mechanical collapse under physiological stress [34,35]. Therefore, strategic adjustments of the polymer molecular weight, composition, and blending technology are essential to mitigate rapid degradation and ensure a predictable functional lifetime and reliability of bulk-degrading bioelectronic devices.

3. BIODEGRADABLE ADHESIVE

3.1 Hydrogel-based Adhesive Interfaces

Hydrogels have excellent mechanical strength and high water content, which allows them to exhibit excellent adhesiveness, even in wet environments. Consequently, hydrogels effectively conform to the shape of complex and fine soft tissues, making them promising materials for stable adhesion to objects, such as organs in the body. The greatest advantage of hydrogels is that their degradation rate can be precisely controlled. Recent studies have focused on the development of hydrogel systems that systematically degrade over preset periods by combining natural and synthetic polymers. Methods have been proposed to achieve the desired degradation rate by appropriately mixing alginate, gelatin, hyaluronic acid, and polyethylene glycol. Strategies involving the addition of therapeutic agents or bioactive compounds to such hydrogels can simultaneously promote local drug release, suppress inflammatory responses, and support tissue repair [24,26].

In addition, several hydrogel formulations contain chitosan networks or special binders to maintain stable adhesion even in humid and dynamic environments. They form adhesions through electrostatic, covalent, and physical interactions (Fig. 3 (a)) [36].

Fig. 3.

Biodegradable hydrogel-based adhesive patches. (a) Strategies for degradable tough adhesives and tough hydrogel adhesive interfaces with a degradable covalent network. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH. (b) Schematic of xerogel adhesive interfaces based on sponge-like structures, marine organisms with micropores for adhesion and transport, LIMB adhesion to blood-exposed substrates, and post-implantation tissues using 2M-LIMB (25% adhesive liquid). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [37]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature.

In some cases, the degradation rate and stability can be improved by replacing the existing standard crosslinker with a biodegradable alternative or by adding oxidized alginate. In addition, some systems mimic the natural adhesive strategy by introducing a xerographic structure with fluid absorption capabilities to maintain stable adhesion, even in the presence of bleeding or exudate (Fig. 3 (b)) [37]. These properties are particularly useful for biosensing and diagnostic devices operating under dynamic and wet conditions.

3.2 Bioinspired 3D Structured Biodegradable Polymer Adhesive Interfaces

Recent studies have shown that adhesive interfaces utilizing biomimetic 3D polymer structures, which combine the advantages of biodegradable materials, are gaining increasing attention. This technology mimics the unique adhesive mechanisms observed in nature, such as in geckos, frogs, and octopuses, provides stable adhesive strength while minimizing the cell burden owing to modulus mismatch that may occur when applied to fragile soft tissues, and has the advantage of easy separation when necessary. Thus, adhesive interfaces are highly suitable for use in various medical applications.

PGS, a biodegradable elastomer synthesized via the esterification of glycerol and sebacic acid, has emerged as a favorable material for such applications because of its tunable mechanical properties and excellent tissue compatibility [18,30]. Its derivative, poly(glycerol sebacate acrylate) (PGSA), has been used to fabricate gecko-inspired nanopatterned adhesive interfaces in which the adhesion strength can be modulated by adjusting the polymer composition, nanofiller distribution, and surface functionalization, such as oxidized dextran coatings (Fig. 4). These coatings enable chemical bonding with surrounding tissues through Schiff base reactions and hemiacetal formation, thereby improving adhesion at the sensor–tissue interface.

Fig. 4.

Bioinspired adhesive interface based on poly(glycerol sebacate) elastomer: Gecko-inspired poly(glycerol-co-sebacate acrylate) tissue adhesive fabricated via the photopolymerization of acrylated poly(glycerol sebacate) prepolymer, demonstrating strong and flexible adhesion to wet biological tissues for wound closure and tissue repair applications. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright (2008) National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.

In addition, frog-toe-pad-inspired 3D microstructures have been developed using PGS-based materials that incorporate hierarchical hexagonal arrays and concave cup-shaped patterns to enhance the conformal contact and capillary-induced adhesion (Fig. 5) [38]. These structures are often coated with viscous glycerol oil, which facilitates fluid absorption and stabilizes adhesion on irregular, soft, and dynamic tissue surfaces, such as the liver, heart, and lungs. This design strategy contributes significantly to the long-term integration and operational stability of biodegradable adhesive interfaces for bioelectronics, particularly in wet and physiologically active environments. Overall, these biomimetic, microstructured adhesive systems demonstrate the potential to bridge the mechanical, chemical, and biological gaps between electronic devices and living tissues, thereby advancing the development of next-generation medical sensors and diagnostic platforms.

Fig. 5.

Bioinspired adhesive patch based on poly(glycerol sebacate) elastomer: Tree-frog-inspired biodegradable hexagonal hierarchical adhesive patch coated with mucus-like glycerol, enabling strong and conformal adhesion to wet and dynamic biological tissues for applications in wound closure and tissue sealing. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

4. CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights the development of adhesive interfaces based on biodegradable hydrogels and elastomeric materials as promising alternatives to conventional surgical sutures. These systems offer significant advantages in various biomedical applications, particularly as interface materials for bioelectronic devices and localized drug delivery platforms. For long-term biomedical use, particularly in implantable or wearable electronics, it is essential that adhesive interfaces maintain a robust bonding performance even as degradation proceeds gradually. Furthermore, sustaining the adhesion in moist and dynamic biological environments remains a critical design challenge.

However, several practical challenges remain to be addressed. First, it is difficult to control the degradation rate precisely to ensure that the patch functions properly during its intended duration. As factors, such as pH, enzyme activity, and skin movement, vary from person to person, the degradation patterns of the same material can differ. Additionally, designing a chemical structure that provides strong adhesion during use but can be easily and painlessly removed or dissolved afterward remains challenging. Over time, the adhesive strength gradually decreases, leading to unstable sensor signals or electrical connections. However, few studies have systematically measured these changes under actual wear conditions. Furthermore, the safety of small particles generated during degradation has not been sufficiently verified, leaving the possibility of side effects from long-term wear unresolved.

To address these issues, recent studies have focused on hybrid adhesive architectures that combine the moisture-absorbing capacity of hydrogels with the mechanical resilience of the elastomeric layers. If such hybrid systems are realized with fully biodegradable and biocompatible materials, they can not only improve patient safety and comfort, but also serve as foundational platforms for next-generation bioelectronic sensor systems. In particular, biodegradable adhesive interfaces play a pivotal role in the development of transient, self-dissolving, and implantable biosensors, enabling conformal long-term integration with biological tissues without requiring surgical removal. Continued interdisciplinary research on materials, microstructures, and functional integration is essential to unlock the full potential of these interfaces in clinical and diagnostic technologies.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Market-led K-sensor Technology Program (RS-2022-00154781, Development of largearea wafer-level flexible/stretchable hybrid sensor platform technology for form factor-free highly integrated convergence sensors) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE, Korea).

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